The term Scientific Revolution is in itself controversial. Traditionally the term is used to describe the spectacular intellectual triumphs of sixteenth and seventeenth century European astronomy and physical science. But perhaps this is a rather simplistic view because much of the success of the scientific revolution was based firmly on achievements made during the Renaissance and before. The term revolution implies a rapid transformation but many scientific discoveries were achieved gradually phase by phase over a long period of time.
Despite this qualification by 1700 educated people conceived the universe as a mechanical structure like a clock and nature was supposed to be open to investigation by means of experimentation and mathematical analysis. Such new attitudes contrasted markedly with traditional idea i.e. that the Earth was immobile and the centre of the universe which was composed of a series of crystalline spheres and nature was a living organism. In the medieval world picture Aristotle rules - the heavens were unchangeable, motion of the planets was circular and perfect. Below the moon the Earth was changeable and was composed of only four elements - earth, water, air and fire. Thomas Aquinas had sought to assimilate Christian doctrine to the philosophy of Aristotle.
The major shift in outlook during the early modern period was closely associated with a broader cultural transformation in which the acquisition of natural knowledge and the control of nature were associated with man's religious destiny. Thus the scientific revolution, if the term be allowed to stand, reflected revolution or change in other areas of society. In particular in this essay I want to discuss how the scientific revolution was a reflection of changes taking place in the Renaissance, religious change in the Reformation, technical and educational changes in particular which reflect world geographical discoveries and with a brief mention of politics, economics and war's effect on science.
Humanism
During the Renaissance Aristotle's views had been questioned. Nicole Oresme denied the validity of reasoned argument and physical theory. Aristotle had developed a physical system largely by deductive reasoning but the Nominalists rejected deduction from the mere nature of objects and applied a stronger emphasis on empirical facts. Jean Buridan and Oresme advocated such views. Oresme felt that Christian doctrine was the only valid authority for knowledge and theology was the Queen of Sciences. The limitation of human reason implied that Christian doctrine alone could serve as the ultimate authority for human understanding. As the Renaissance progressed the interest in natural magic became dominant in the study of the natural world and such an investigation was sanctioned by the rediscovery of the texts of Hermes Trismegistus, quite wrongly believed to be of great antiquity.
The hermetic writings contain a blend of mysticism, magical and Christian elements. Renaissance thinkers thus secured the harmony between Christian theology and the vision of the natural world in the hermetic texts. The hermetic emphasis on the control of power by man was a significant feature of Renaissance natural magic or alchemy of which the chief exponent was Paracelsus. From this example we can see how an important stimulus to research (even if often of not direct scientific value) were the texts made available by the humanist scholars. The work of all the Greek writers was made available and the work of recovery was a precondition for future advance in scientific thinking even if many old ideas were rejected or open to misinterpretation such as the Hermetica which made astrology, alchemy and magic acceptable which would retard the advance of actual science. However, the humanists did the world of science a great service in spreading Plato's ideas because underlying the work of Copernicus, Brahe and Kepler was the Platonic assumption that the world could be explained in mathematical terms. The idea was applied to astronomy originally because Aristotle had held that mathematics could not explain phenomena on earth adequately but this view was overturned and led to the rise of mechanics under Galileo and Simon Stevin aided and abetted by the humanist translations of Archimedes.
Despite this qualification by 1700 educated people conceived the universe as a mechanical structure like a clock and nature was supposed to be open to investigation by means of experimentation and mathematical analysis. Such new attitudes contrasted markedly with traditional idea i.e. that the Earth was immobile and the centre of the universe which was composed of a series of crystalline spheres and nature was a living organism. In the medieval world picture Aristotle rules - the heavens were unchangeable, motion of the planets was circular and perfect. Below the moon the Earth was changeable and was composed of only four elements - earth, water, air and fire. Thomas Aquinas had sought to assimilate Christian doctrine to the philosophy of Aristotle.
The major shift in outlook during the early modern period was closely associated with a broader cultural transformation in which the acquisition of natural knowledge and the control of nature were associated with man's religious destiny. Thus the scientific revolution, if the term be allowed to stand, reflected revolution or change in other areas of society. In particular in this essay I want to discuss how the scientific revolution was a reflection of changes taking place in the Renaissance, religious change in the Reformation, technical and educational changes in particular which reflect world geographical discoveries and with a brief mention of politics, economics and war's effect on science.
Humanism
During the Renaissance Aristotle's views had been questioned. Nicole Oresme denied the validity of reasoned argument and physical theory. Aristotle had developed a physical system largely by deductive reasoning but the Nominalists rejected deduction from the mere nature of objects and applied a stronger emphasis on empirical facts. Jean Buridan and Oresme advocated such views. Oresme felt that Christian doctrine was the only valid authority for knowledge and theology was the Queen of Sciences. The limitation of human reason implied that Christian doctrine alone could serve as the ultimate authority for human understanding. As the Renaissance progressed the interest in natural magic became dominant in the study of the natural world and such an investigation was sanctioned by the rediscovery of the texts of Hermes Trismegistus, quite wrongly believed to be of great antiquity.
The hermetic writings contain a blend of mysticism, magical and Christian elements. Renaissance thinkers thus secured the harmony between Christian theology and the vision of the natural world in the hermetic texts. The hermetic emphasis on the control of power by man was a significant feature of Renaissance natural magic or alchemy of which the chief exponent was Paracelsus. From this example we can see how an important stimulus to research (even if often of not direct scientific value) were the texts made available by the humanist scholars. The work of all the Greek writers was made available and the work of recovery was a precondition for future advance in scientific thinking even if many old ideas were rejected or open to misinterpretation such as the Hermetica which made astrology, alchemy and magic acceptable which would retard the advance of actual science. However, the humanists did the world of science a great service in spreading Plato's ideas because underlying the work of Copernicus, Brahe and Kepler was the Platonic assumption that the world could be explained in mathematical terms. The idea was applied to astronomy originally because Aristotle had held that mathematics could not explain phenomena on earth adequately but this view was overturned and led to the rise of mechanics under Galileo and Simon Stevin aided and abetted by the humanist translations of Archimedes.
